Leasehold reform act 1967 - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 623 Downloads: 7 Date added: 2017/06/26 Category Law Essay Type Essay any type Tags: Act Essay Did you like this example? 1. What were the material facts in the case? The Leasehold Reform Act 1967 provides tenants the right to purchase the landlords freehold interest of a property. There is no requirement for the tenant to occupy or have occupied the property. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Leasehold reform act 1967" essay for you Create order The property was subject to a lease. The appellant was the tenant under the lease. The appellant wanted to acquire the freehold of the property. The property was originally built as a single private residence and had subsequently been adapted for both residential and commercial use. The property had become heavily dilapidated and was not physically fit for immediate residential occupation. In order to be construed as a house under Section 2(1) of the Leasehold Reform Act 1967 a property must satisfy two requirements i.e. it must be both designed and adapted for living in and be reasonably so called. 2. Explain, in your own words, the legal issue(s) in the case. What is the definition of a house under Section 2 (1) of the Leasehold Reform Act 1967, specifically what is meant by the phrase designed and adapted for living in? Was the property in question designed or adapted for living in, within the meaning of Section 2(1), when the notice of enfranchisement was served? Do the words designed and adapted for living in within Section 2 (1) of the Act suggest that the property be capable of immediate residential occupation? Or should the test be an historic one i.e. should the fact that the property was designed for living in when first built and had not subsequently been altered from this be sufficient to construe that it is indeed designed and adapted for living in and therefore satisfy this requirement for the purposes of Section 2 (1) of the 1967 Act. 3. Which technique(s) of statutory interpretation do you consider that Lord Neuberger employed in the case? Give reasons for your answer. Literal Rule at [17] as a matter of ordinary language Contextual/purposive at [17] reinforced by considering other provisions of the sub-section, and supported by the original terms†¦ and considerations of practicality and policy Literal Rule at [18] as a matter of ordinary English and the natural meaning of the word Contextual at [19] reinforced by the later words in the same section Literal Rule at [22] the words in question are given their natural meaning 4. Which presumptions and/or rules of language did Lord Neuberger employ in the case? Give reasons for your answer. Noscitur a Sociis reinforced by the later words in the same section at [19] 5. To what aids to statutory interpretation did Lord Neuberger refer? Your answer should indicate whether such aids were intrinsic or extrinsic. Intrinsic: Section 1 (1) Section 2 (1) Extrinsic: Tandon v Trustees of Spurgeons Homes [1982] AC 755 Suffolk County Council v Mason [1979] AC 705 Attorney General v Lamplough (1878) 3 Ex D 214 6. Explain, in your own words, the ratio decidendi of Alpha Holdings v Beta Properties [2007] UKHL 17 The words designed or adapted for living in within s.2 (1) of the Leashold Reform Act 1967 are to be given their ordinary or natural meaning. A property is a house within the meaning of the sub-section if it had been designed for living in when originally built and the structure had remained largely the same i.e. the test of designed for living in is an historic one. Whilst the property had become heavily dilapidated and was indeed uninhabitable this did not alter the fact that it had been designed for living in when first built. It is not reasonable to assume that a property must be capable of immediate residential occupation in order for it to be construed as a house under s.2 (1) of the 1967 Act. Therefore at the time the notice of enfranchisement was served the property was designed or adapted for living in within the meaning of s.2 (1).

Neonatal Respiratory distress syndrome reflective practice...

This assignment describes my own reflective experience while caring for a sick neonate with Respiratory Distress Syndrome (RDS) in the neonatal unit. This has enabled me to explore the meaning and significance of my clinical practice and to recognise the complexities within it. The experience raises a number of issues frequently encountered in daily nursing practice. Within this assignment, I will be discussing a particular pre term baby with RDS and critically analyse the use of nasal continuous positive airways pressure (NCPAP) and surfactant therapy and possible effects on baby’s outcome. Pseudonyms will be used to maintain patient confidentiality in order to keep in with the nursing and midwifery council code of conduct. (NMC 2004)The†¦show more content†¦To understand whether the actions carried out was rational or whether it did more harm or good, it is necessary to review the development of RDS in a preterm baby. Neonatal RDS is a condition of increasing respiratory distress commencing at or shortly after birth (BAPM-2006). It’s the single most important cause of morbidity and mortality in preterm infants (Greenough, et al 2004). Typically RDS affects preterm infants with the incidence being inversely proportional to the gestational age (Stewart 2005) Approximately 60% of those born before 28 weeks gestation are affected (Fraser, et al 2004) Incidence also increases in infants of diabetic mothers those born via elective caesarean section (Fraser, et al 2004) and perinatal asphyxia (Rodriguez, 2003). RDS is characterised by tachypnoea, nasal flaring, intercostal and sub costal in drawing with sternal retraction and a predominantly a diaphragmatic breathing pattern and a characteristic expiratory grunt or moan and cyanosis without oxygen, all persisting within 4-6 hours of delivery. Diagnosis can be confirmed by history, blood gases showing impaired respiratory function and an X-ray film showing ground glass appearance and air bronchograms (Fraser, et al 2004) RDS is caused by a defective or delayed production of surfactant in structurally immature lungs. Surfactant is a complex mixture of phospholipids and proteins secreted by the typeShow MoreRelatedRisk Factors For Gestational Diabetes Mellitus1765 Words   |  8 Pageshigher incidence of GDM than non-Hispanic Caucasian women [Ferrara, 2007; Slocum and Burke Sosa, 2002]), obesity (body mass index [BMI] ≠¥25 kg/m2), high pre-pregnancy fasting blood glucose levels, increased maternal age, parity, polycystic ovarian syndrome, sociodemographic and behavioral attributes, previous adverse pregnancy outcomes, and previous GDM (Gunderson, et al., 2007; Perkins, et al., 2007). King (1998) found that in the absence of risk factors, gestational diabetes is rare (0.6%), and

Effects of Technology in Society Free Essays

Technology has automated many of the critical processes in the industry as well the household. The electronic gadgets that have entered the homes of the common man have saved him the daily household work. Our world is ever changing an advancing in the realm of science and technology. We will write a custom essay sample on Effects of Technology in Society or any similar topic only for you Order Now Our dreams become cornerstones for the future. These days it seems hard to escape the presence of technology. Many of us depend on it to get us through the day, to do our job, to get around, and to find certain things. While technology has brought us such a long way, could it in fact be hindering us in other ways? What happens when these same technologies we so depend on fail? Could most forms of technology just be interruptions, ways of moving us further away from each other? Could Technology cause a form of isolation? We are faced with these questions every day, whether we realize it or not. Think of the days when there were no computers and no modern means of transport. Human life was highly restricted due to the unavailability of technological applications. Daily life involved a lot of physical activity. The life of the common man of those times was not as luxurious as that of the modern times, but he was more active. Daily exercise was integrated in the routine physical activities. It was contrary to the lifestyle of today, which carries no time slot for rigorous exercise and carries laze and inactivity. Think of the days when there were no online messengers, no emails and no cell phones. Indeed the cellular technology created the miracle of enabling communication over the wireless media. The communication facilities provided by the Internet worked wonders in speeding long-distance communication but also deprived mankind of the warmth of personal contact. Emails replaced handwritten letters and communication lost its personal touch. With the means of communication available a few clicks away, the tendency of taking pains to reach the loved ones has vanished. Times have witnessed this industry evolve from mechanical scooters to automated aircrafts. Animals were the only modes of transportation in day pass. Technology was the driving force behind the creation and design of the modern-day automobiles. Bicycles evolved into scooters and sports bikes. The idea of having four-wheeled modes of transportation gave rise to the creation of cars. Modes of air and water came up, thanks to technology. Machines have automated many of the crucial industrial processes. Machines are now taking up many of the mundane jobs that were once executed by human workers. One of the most important breakthroughs for technology was the agricultural system. The agricultural system was the basis for the technology of the future. The agricultural system brought on the need for transportation, workers and even, battles over land. The need for transportation brought vehicles into the market. The need for employees brought mechanical robots into society. Battles over land brought on the need for sophisticated weapons. The agricultural system brought on a revolution. The invention of the television can bring media and other forms of entertainment into your house with video and audio combined. Before 1950, newspapers and radio were the only ways to bring media or entertainment into the house. Mass production and other job opportunities brought many people from the suburbs and farms into the city. We can now have forms of electricity directed into our houses for heating and light. Humans are more reliant on technology than ever before. All of these technological advances sound great; however, there is a negative effect to all this technology. Technology can serve to actually harm humans rather than help them. Competition between companies or even cities can sometimes make lives for humans even worse. Take for example when a city builds better and more roads to attract tourists. This actually creates more traffic, not less. Technology also changes our sense of common purpose. New inventions such as the personal computer and machines can change our lifestyles. Even things we take for granted such as the automobile have negative effects on technology. The oil needed for a car to run needs to be imported and sometimes accidents such as the Exxon Valdez incident spills many gallons of oil into the ocean. All of these examples show how technology has negative effects on society. First, competition can lead to a negative effect of technology. When a company in the U.  S. produces shoes and a company in Great Britain produces shoes as well, they must fight for their market share. Let’s say the company in Great Britain purchases more machines that will reduce the amount of workers needed and improve output, and then they can reduce the price of their product. If the company in New York doesn’t follow in their footsteps then they could be forced out of business. In this case the company is forced into buying the machines just so they can stay in business. This has a negative effect on the employees who will be replaced by the new machines. When a city wants to attract tourists by building better roads to lessen traffic there is a mistake because this will only create more traffic since there will be more people wanting to travel these roads. McManus says the inability to see the future is responsible for the negative effects of new technologies. He also states better roads cause more traffic congestion, not less. By creating better roads, more people will want to travel these roads (A-1). If New York City built a new sophisticated highway to attract more tourists then more New Yorkers will want to travel these roads as well. Many New Yorkers who previously used mass transit to travel to work will now want to use a car to travel to work. In effect there will be more traffic and more pollution. There will be other side effects as well. Real estate values of areas near the highway could go down. Competition can help a community in one aspect however it can hurt it as well. Competition can directly stimulate the economy; however, long term effects such as pollution and the loss of jobs could explain why the City of New York doesn’t complete a project like this. Second, technology can change our sense of common purpose. For millions of years, mankind has been used to doing everything for themselves. For a long time peoples’ main concerns were survival. To survive means to go out into the woods or forests and shoot animals for the food which the family needs to eat for the day. People of modern society never think about hunting for food or clothes. Now, it is all brought to people instantly through a new standard of survival. The new standard for survival means making money to go to a mall or supermarket and getting everything a family needs. A family can get food and clothing at these places without ever having to go into a forest or a lake. This thought is ever so frightening. When a person from modern society goes into a supermarket and buys a pound of fish, he or she doesn’t even think of the process that went into the arrival of that piece of fish. He or she didn’t need to go to a lake, all that was needed was to drive to your local supermarket and buy it. No fishing or hunting was necessary. Humans are losing their sense of common purpose. â€Å"But what ‘revenge effect’ will this have? The technology- resistance movement begins by pointing out that we are cobbling together virtual communities while our real cities crumble, at least partly because our sense of common purpose has frayed. Today, only about 5 percent of American households are on-line, but what happens, the critics wonder, when half the country is wired? Will we escape the unpleasant complications of the world outside our locked doors by opting for communities in ‘cyberspace,’ where we can enjoy the company of people who share our interests and our views? Where the streets never need to be cleaned and you don’t have to keep an eye on your neighbor’s house? What happens if the sirens outside become too distracting? Will we simply buy insulated drapes? Humans are getting lazy. Almost everything must be done for them in advance. However, sometimes this change in lifestyle is forced upon humans. When a company decides to buy robots to do the job that man once did, and then the human is forced into either getting fired or watching the machine all day long. Hopefully humans will not get used to watching a robot do all the work for them. Technology has definitely changed the lifestyle and common purpose of many humans. Conclusion In conclusion, society has recently seen the negative effects of society. Competition between cities and companies has taken away jobs and brought unwanted and costly projects into pleasurable areas. A change in lifestyle among almost every human being is yet another negative effect of technology. What has happened to people since supermarkets came to town? People do not want to hunt for food anymore. They find it much easier to walk into a store and purchase it. A third reason why technology has a negative effect on society is the advent of highly reliant possessions such as the automobile. Many people count on traveling to work every day by car. If the car was somehow taken away from people then there would be chaos. It is much too late to take it away. Humans are much too reliant on it. There is not enough mass transit to transport all of the present car users. Hopefully, future technologies will be fully considered. We must look at the advantages and consequences and measure if society will benefit or suffer from the technology. Past technologies weren’t fully considered and if they were, there is a chance that the automobile never would have gone into production. How to cite Effects of Technology in Society, Essay examples

Women Role in Society in Uzbekistan free essay sample

The population of Uzbekistan is exceedingly young. In the early 1990s, about half the population was under nineteen years of age. Experts expected this demographic trend to continue for some time because Uzbekistans population growth rate has been quite high for the past century: on the eve of the collapse of the Soviet Union, only Tajikistan had a higher growth rate among the Soviet republics. Between 1897 and 1991, the population of the region hat is now Uzbekistan more than quintupled, while the population of the entire territory of the former Soviet Union had not quite doubled. In 1991 the natural rate of population increase (the birth rate minus the death rate) in Uzbekistan was 28. 3 per 1,000more than four times that of the Soviet Union as a whole, and an increase from ten years earlier (see table 2, Appendix). These characteristics are especially pronounced in the Autonomous Republic of Karakalpakstan (the Uzbek form for which is Qoroqalpoghiston Respublikasi), Uzbekistans we sternmost region. In 1936, as part of Stalins nationality policy, the Karakalpaks (a Turkic Muslim group whose name literally means black hat) were given their own territory in western Uzbekistan, which was declared an autonomous Soviet socialist republic to define its ethnic differences while maintaining it within the republic of Uzbekistan. In 1992 Karakalpakstan received republic status within independent Uzbekistan. Since that time, the central government in Tashkent has maintained pressure and tight economic ties that have kept the republic from exerting full independence. Today, the population of Karakalpakstan is about 1. 3 million people who live on a territory of roughly 168,000 square kilometers. Located in the fertile lower reaches of the Amu Darya where the river empties into the Aral Sea, Karakalpakstan has a long history of irrigation agriculture. Currently, however, the shrinking of the Aral Sea has made Karakalpakstan one of the poorest and most environmentally devastated parts of Uzbekistan, if not the entire former Soviet Union. Because the population of that region is much younger than the national average (according to the 1989 census, nearly three-quarters of the population was younger than twenty-nine years), the rate of population growth is quite high. In 1991 the rate of natural growth in Karakalpakstan was reportedly more than thirty births per 1,000 and slightly higher in the republics rural areas. Karakalpakstan is also more rural than Uzbekistan as a whole, with some of its administrative regions (rayony ; sing. , rayon ) having only villages and no urban centersan unusual situation in a former Soviet republic. The growth of Uzbekistans population was in some part due to in-migration from other parts of the former Soviet Union. Several waves of Russian and Slavic in-migrants arrived at various times in response to the industrialization of Uzbekistan in the early part of the Soviet period, following the evacuations of European Russia during World War II, and in the late 1960s to help reconstruct Tashkent after the 1966 earthquake. At various other times, non-Uzbeks arrived simply to take advantage of opportunities they perceived in Central Asia. Recently, however, Uzbekistan has begun to witness a net emigration of its European population. This is especially true of Russians, who have faced increased discrimination and uncertainty since 1991 and seek a more secure environment in Russia. Because most of Uzbekistans population growth has been attributable to high rates of natural increase, the emigration of Europeans is expected to have little impact on the overall size and demographic structure of Uzbekistans population. Demographers project that the population, currently growing at about 2. percent per year, will increase by 500,000 to 600,000 annually between the mid-1990s and the year 2010. Thus, by the year 2005 at least 30 million people will live in Uzbekistan. High growth rates are expected to give rise to increasingly sharp population pressures that will exceed those experienced by most other former Soviet republics. Indeed, five of the eight most densely populated provinces of the former Soviet UnionAndijon, Farghona , Tashkent, Namangan, and Khorazmare located in Uzbekistan, and populations continue to grow rapidly in all five. In 1993 the average population density of Uzbekistan was about 48. inhabitants per square kilometer, compared with a ratio of fewer than six inhabitants per square kilometer in neighboring Kazakstan. The distribution of arable land in 1989 was estimated at only 0. 15 hectares per person. In the early 1990s, Uzbekistans population growth had an increasingly negative impact on the environment, on the economy, and on the potential for increased ethnic tension. lt;gt;Ethnic Composition Updated population figures for Uzbekistan. UzbekistanUzbekistan Ethnic CompositionUzbekistan Population pressures have exacerbated ethnic tensions. In 1995 about 71 percent of Uzbekistans population was Uzbek. The chief minority groups were Russians (slightly more than 8 percent), Tajiks (officially almost 5 percent, but believed to be much higher), Kazaks (about 4 percent), Tatars (about 2. 5 percent), and Karakalpaks (slightly more than 2 percent). In the mid-1990s, Uzbekistan was becoming increasingly homogeneous, as the outflow of Russians and other minorities continues to increase and as Uzbeks return from other parts of the former Soviet Union. According to unofficial data, between 1985 and 1991 the number of nonindigenous individuals in Uzbekistan declined from 2. to 1. 6 million. The increase in the indigenous population and the emigration of Europeans have increased the self-confidence and often the self-assertiveness of indigenous Uzbeks, as well as the sense of vulnerability among the Russians in Uzbekistan. The Russian population, as former colonizers, was reluctant to learn the local language or to adapt to local co ntrol in the post-Soviet era. In early 1992, public opinion surveys suggested that most Russians in Uzbekistan felt more insecure and fearful than they had before Uzbek independence. The irony of this ethnic situation is that many of these Central Asian ethnic groups in Uzbekistan were artificially created and delineated by Soviet fiat in the first place. Before the Bolshevik Revolution, there was little sense of an Uzbek nationhood as such; instead, life was organized around the tribe or clan (see Entering the Twentieth Century, this ch. ). Until the twentieth century, the population of what is today Uzbekistan was ruled by the various khans who had conquered the region in the sixteenth century. But Soviet rule, and the creation of the Uzbek Soviet Socialist Republic in October 1924, ultimately created and solidified a new kind of Uzbek identity. At the same time, the Soviet policy of cutting across existing ethnic and linguistic lines in the region to create Uzbekistan and the other new republics also sowed tension and strife among the Central Asian groups that inhabited the region. In particular, the territory of Uzbekistan was drawn to include the two main Tajik cultural centers, Bukhoro and Samarqand, as well as parts of the Fergana Valley to which other ethnic groups could lay claim. This readjustment of ethnic politics caused animosity and territorial claims among Uzbeks, Tajiks, Kyrgyz, and others through much of the Soviet era, but conflicts grew especially sharp after the collapse of central Soviet rule. The stresses of the Soviet period were present among Uzbekistans ethnic groups in economic, political, and social spheres. An outbreak of violence in the Fergana Valley between Uzbeks and Meskhetian Turks in June 1989 claimed about 100 lives. That conflict was followed by similar outbreaks of violence in other parts of the Fergana Valley and elsewhere. The civil conflict in neighboring Tajikistan, which also involves ethnic hostilities, has been perceived in Uzbekistan (and presented by the Uzbekistani government) as an external threat that could provoke further ethnic conflict within Uzbekistan. Thousands of Uzbeks living in Tajikistan have fled the civil war there and migrated back to Uzbekistan, for example, just as tens of thousands of Russians and other Slavs have left Uzbekistan for northern Kazakstan or Russia. Crimean Tatars, deported to Uzbekistan at the end of World War II, are migrating out of Uzbekistan to return to the Crimea. Two ethnic schisms may play an important role in the future of Uzbekistan. The first is the potential interaction of the remaining Russians with the Uzbek majority. Historically, this relationship has been based on fear, colonial dominance, and a vast difference in values and norms between the two populations. The second schism is among the Central Asians themselves. The results of a 1993 public opinion survey suggest that even at a personal level, the various Central Asian and Muslim communities often display as much wariness and animosity toward each other as they do toward the Russians in their midst. When asked, for example, whom they would not like to have as a son- or daughter-in-law, the proportion of Uzbek respondents naming Kyrgyz and Kazaks as undesirable was about the same as the proportion that named Russians. (About 10 percent of the Uzbeks said they would like to have a Russian son- or daughter-in-law. ) And the same patterns were evident when respondents were asked about preferred nationalities among their neighbors and colleagues at work. Reports described an official Uzbekistani government policy of discrimination against the Tajik minority. More about the lt;gt;Population of Uzbekistan. UzbekistanUzbekistan Other Social AffiliationsUzbekistan Other social factors also define the identities and loyalties of individuals in Uzbekistan and influence their behavior. Often regional and clan identities play an important role that supersedes specifically ethnic identification. In the struggle for political control or access to economic resources, for example, regional alliances often prevail over ethnic identities. A United States expert has identified five regionsthe Tashkent region, the Fergana Valley, Samarqand and Bukhoro, the northwest territories, and the southern regionthat have played the role of a power base for individuals who rose to the position of first secretary of the Communist Party of Uzbekistan. Often clan-based, these regional allegiances remain important in both the politics and the social structure of post-Soviet Uzbekistan. UzbekistanUzbekistan Language and LiteratureUzbekistan As with ethnic patterns and boundaries of post-Soviet Uzbekistan, the dominant native language, Uzbek, is in many ways a creation of the Soviet state. Indeed, until the beginning of the Soviet period, the languages spoken among the native population presented a colorful and diverse mosaic. Under Soviet rule, officially at least, this mosaic was replaced by Uzbek, which almost overnight became the official language of the Turkic population of the republic. But Russian, which at the same time was declared the international language of Uzbekistan, was favored above even Uzbek in official usage. Many Russian words made their way into Uzbek because Russian was the language of higher education, government, and economic activity throughout the Soviet era. In the 1980s, Uzbeks began a strong effort to eliminate the recent Russian borrowings from the language. The Latin alphabet was introduced to begin a gradual process of replacing the Cyrillic alphabet. But in the mid-1990s Russian still was widely used in official and economic circles. lt;gt;Linguistic Background lt;gt;Influences in the Soviet Period lt;gt;Language in the 1990s lt;gt;LiteratureUzbekistanUzbekistan Linguistic BackgroundUzbekistan Uzbek is a Turkic language of the Qarluq family, closely related to Uyghur and Kazak. Although numerous local dialects and variations of the language are in use, the Tashkent dialect is the basis of the official written language. The dialects spoken in the northern and western parts of Uzbekistan have strong Turkmen elements because historically many Turkmen lived in close proximity to the Uzbeks in those regions. The dialects in the Fergana Valley near Kyrgyzstan show some Kyrgyz influence. Especially in the written dialect, Uzbek also has a strong Persian vocabulary element that stems from the historical influence of Iranian culture throughout the region (see Early History, this ch. ). Uzbek has a relatively short history as a language distinct from other Turkic dialects. Until the establishment of the Soviet republics boundaries in the 1920s, Uzbek was not considered a language belonging to a distinct nationality. It was simply a Turkic dialect spoken by a certain segment of the Turkic population of Central Asia, a segment that also included the ruling tribal dynasties of the various states. The regional dialects spoken in Uzbekistan today reflect the fact that the Turkic population of Southern Central Asia has always been a mixture of various Turkic tribal groups (see Ethnic Groups, ch. 1; Social Structure, ch. ; Population, ch. 5). When the present-day borders among the republics were established in 1929, all native peoples living in Uzbekistan (including Tajiks) were registered as Uzbeks regardless of their previous ethnic identity. Until 1924 the written Turkic language of the region had been Chaghatai, a language that had a long and brilliant history as a veh icle of literature and culture after its development in the Timurid state of Herat in the late fifteenth century. Chaghatai also was the common written language of the entire region of Central Asia from the Persian border to Eastern Turkestan, which was located in todays China. The language was written in the Arabic script and had strong Persian elements in its grammar and vocabulary. Experts identify the Herat writer Ali Shir Navai as having played the foremost role in making Chaghatai a dominant literary language. In modern Uzbekistan, Chaghatai is called Old Uzbek; its origin in Herat, which was an enemy state of the Uzbeks, is ignored or unknown. Use of the language was continued by the Uzbek khanates that conquered the Timurid states. Some early Uzbek rulers, such as Mukhammad Shaybani Khan, used Chaghatai to produce excellent poetry and prose. The seventeenth-century Khivan ruler Abulgazi Bahadur Khan wrote important historical works in Chaghatai. However, all of those writers also produced considerable literature in Persian. Chaghatai continued in use well into the twentieth century as the literary language of Central Asia. Early twentieth-century writers such as Fitrat wrote in Chaghatai. In the late nineteenth century and early twentieth century, Chaghatai was influenced by the efforts of reformers of the Jadidist movement, who wanted to Turkify and unite all of the written languages used in the Turkic world into one written language (see The Russian Conquest, this ch. . These efforts were begun by the Crimean Tatar Ismail Gaspirali (Gasprinskiy in Russian), who advocated this cause in his newspaper Terjuman (Translator). Gaspirali called on all the Turkic peoples (including the Ottoman Turks, the Crimean and Kazan Tatars, and the Central Asians) to rid their languages of Arabic, Persian, and other foreign elements and to standardize their orthography and lexicon. Because of this effort, by the early 1920s the Turkic languages of Central Asia had lost some of the Persian influence. UzbekistanUzbekistan Influences in the Soviet PeriodUzbekistan Unfortunately for the reformers and their efforts to reform the language, following the national delimitation the Soviet government began a deliberate policy of separating the Turkic languages from each other. Each nationality was given a separate literary language. Often new languages had to be invented where no such languages had existed before. This was the case for Uzbek, which was declared to be a continuation of Chaghatai and a descendant of all of the ancient Turkic languages spoken in the region.

The Breakdown of Indigenous Culture in Australia

Culture is the entireness of socially imparted behavioral practices from one generation to the other. Culturally transferred patterns, from one generation to the other, play a vital role in the society, and determine the future prospects of that society (Angelo, 1994, p.10). The Indigenous culture in Australia has been systematically broken down since white settlement.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Breakdown of Indigenous Culture in Australia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More In the Aboriginal culture and beliefs, Aboriginal Australia has taken a position of a living legacy of spiritual knowledge and culture. In addition, there has been sharing of different affairs through rituals, art, dance and many more into what they referred as dreamtime (Black, 1983, p.28). The Aborigines believed that their spiritual ancestors descended from the sky. Ceremonial songs functioned to honor legends of the dreamtime creati on era. Before the settlement of the Europeans in Australia in the 17th century, there was an estimate of over 600 groups of Aborigines. These groups had different dialects and cultures that gave them identity (Angelo, 1994, p.23). The settlement of the Europeans in Australia had superficial effects on the Aboriginal groups in the continent. Most of the dwellers believe that if they retained their culture as before, the groups’ status could be the same as those of individual countries with different languages like the ones that make up Europe. However, the British attempt to incorporate Australia into their empire, brought their success into an end. The 17th century marks the start of the modern Australian history to most of the individuals. This perception is in contrast with the view of the Aborigines since to them; it marks the beginning of the European invasion. The Europeans expected the Australian natives to integrate into their (European) ways promptly and without any question. The aborigines came across many social attitudes beyond their understanding. In addition, introduction of firearms, alcohol, and other devices took place leading to premature deaths of many Aborigines. The sudden introduction of the social evils from the western world resulted into considerable destruction to the Aborigines who had a cultural aim of living in harmony with each other. The Aborigines became foreigners in their own land since the Europeans had assumed supreme authority over everything on the land (Baldaulf, 1995, p.53). In addition, the Europeans treated the Aborigines in a harsh manner resulting to their inability to access the sacred sites and their hunting ventures ended.Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The Aborigines went through intense discrimination leading to condemnation and ridiculing of their lifestyle. During the colonial time, regarding of t he Aborigines as inferior led to lying down of missioners to keep them away from the society by closely supervising them all the time (Black, 1983, p.32). The colonialists claimed that the main aim of the close supervision was to protect the Aborigines from the Europeans. The missioners had a resemblance of concentration camps and the rules were that, unauthorized individuals could not leave or enter the designated areas. The missioners also barred natives from accessing some hospitals, which was a sign of total discrimination. In this essence, the Europeans portrayed no cultural diversity in the society. The missions forced the Aborigines to speak and dress like them with an intention of destroying the original society, and this made the Aborigines forget their traditional culture. This act killed cultural diversification since the Aborigines had no right to exercise their culture (Basso, 1998, p.20). In addition, the missions intended to bring to extinction the Aboriginal’s blood. Later, the white Australians adopted the Aborigines babies with an intention that they could forget their past and adapt with the white world. Moreover, the white Australians went to the extent of having powers to control the possessions of the Aborigines. The white Australians could not allow the Aborigines into the public facilities and occasions. Discrimination was not because the Aborigines could not afford for the services; no, they were considered primitive and uncivilized. In addition, the whites placed curfews in some areas, which meant that the Aborigines could not remain in town after certain hours. Moreover, discrimination took place even in education and health sectors. This also extended into the land ownership and employment opportunities, even though, the discriminatory practices were unlawful. Since the 18th century until late 19th century, there occurred controversy on the removal of children from the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders. The federal and t he state government had the responsibility of doing this. This was in collaboration with the church agencies as an official government policy (Black, 1983, p.40).Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on The Breakdown of Indigenous Culture in Australia specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More There was no clear reason of doing this and it remained uncontested by the people. The only known explanation indicated that the government feared the Aboriginal population would become extinct due to disease outbreaks. However, others held that the move was meant to protect children. In the 20th century, many changes in various sectors have taken place to avoid discrimination among the people. It is only a few years down the line since the Aborigines gained recognition as Australian citizens. It is during this time where most people agreed that the Aborigine should also have equal treatment as the ordinary Australians (Basso, 1998, p.23). Even after the passing of these laws, the Aborigines have continued to experience discrimination though they have greater control over their lives. In addition, only after a few decades, the Aborigines started experiencing an improved sense of equality. This was through better residential schemes, employment opportunities, education and many more. Moreover, the Aborigines regained of their land and still hoped that, with time, there would be an improvement on the attitude between different cultural groups. Currently, most of the Australians have pushed for reconciliation that will unite the indigenous and the non-indigenous Australians. In the modern Australia, most of the customs and activities have taken a new direction following the European contact. With this regard, new ways were passed from one generation to the other, considering them as traditional (Black, 1983, p.42). Changes in the Aboriginal culture have taken place over the last many years. Archeological studies reveal t his aspect, indicating that, there is no specific Aboriginal traditional culture since it varies with time and place. In the entire continent of Australia, Aboriginal language and culture is not uniform. The difference varies with demographic regions. The curved returning boomerang and the didgeridoo are examples of the Aboriginal culture. These two examples did spread well along the different regions of Australia. The returning boomerang took place in the southeastern part (Fasold, 1984, p.21). On the other hand, the didgeridoo, used during ceremonies, took place in the northern part. The continent had over 350 tribes each having its own language and traditions. In Australia, certain facets of culture exist in some parts but are lacking in the others because the continent is made of groups of states. This means that some practices took place in some areas, by particular tribes.Advertising Looking for essay on cultural studies? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Rise in sea level separated the Aborigines from the south from the mainland before the arrival of the Europeans. The aborigines in the south were the most isolated individuals in the world. They missed the humankind innovations in the stone technology (Dixon, 1980, p.50). People in the far north do not consider themselves as Aborigines; they consider themselves as a distinct group, and their culture is a blend of the Aborigines from the mainland and that of individuals from Papua New Guinea. In the modern Australia, the Aboriginals have almost adopted the living styles of the European culture; only a few groups can show or define their native culture. In other areas, families in the remote regions are working hard to maintain the traditions and live in ceremonial life (Janke, 1998, p.10). In addition, there are people living in the Aboriginal communities buying most of the basic needs and at times following the traditional methods of survival. Moreover, at the far end are the urban Aborigines who have adopted the European living styles. Inevitable changes such as the modern transport and living style had to take place in the Australian continent. Contemporary Australia is rooted in liberal democratic traditions. In Australia, three key societal values that include tolerance, informality, and egalitarianism, are well known. Anglo-Celtic origins have highly influenced the Australian’s culture (Janke, 1998, p.12). In addition, multi-ethnic migrations have also influenced the Australian life. Australia does not have an official language though English is the prevalent language. According to the recent census, a population of approximately 80% mostly uses English in homes because of influence by the colonialists where the indigenous language had no meaning. A good number of migrants in Australia are bilingual. During the time of the first European contact, more than 200 Aboriginal languages were in existence; however, approximately 70 languages are in existe nce currently (Fasold, 1984, p.23). Different developments that took place in the Australian continent threatened the indigenous languages. In some states, few indigenous languages survived. In countries where Europeans settled, indigenous languages underwent embattlement since the start of the colonial power. Colonialists in Australia based division of labor in gender, where women were associated with the private sphere. In addition, they were also associated with the unpaid work and the home (Dixon, 1980, p.56). On the other hand, men were associated with the public sphere. Moreover, men got associated with the paid work and the larger society. Division of labor was dominant during the early years of settlement. It is during this era when women took the role of homemakers whose role was to bring civility to men. In the traditional Australia, grouping of occupations was sex-segregated. Since 1970s, passing of policies to promote gender equality in all areas took place (Campbell, 19 97, p.78). This gave more room for women to participate in the secondary and higher education. In addition, there was an increase in the general workforce and availability of childcare. Cultural diversity has taken place in this essence bringing changes in areas like these where women have equal roles as men. In the formation of the government, Australia uses the British system. Elections take place after every four years for the federal, state, and territorial seats (Black, 1983, p.45). In the past, during the colonial rule, the Australian continent had different regions as they are nowadays. The system of the political parties in Australia bears features of the arrangements made by the federation of state. Three levels of government leaderships exist where democratic voting of the officials takes place. This gives the people freedom of choice compared to the colonial empire where dictation took place. Social stratification in Australia falls under three categories. These classes i nclude the working, the middle, and the upper class. The differences between the three groups raise alarm seriously. Individuals considered as the wealthiest fall in the upper class category. These individuals get their wealth from land ownership and capital generation. The middle class has individuals with non-manual occupations. As aforementioned, materials owned underscore the class of an individual; therefore, expensive clothes, cars, and homes characterize individuals in the upper class. The economic value of these properties varies across the regions (Basso, 1998, p.34). In other cases, the property owned cannot always characterize the class of different individuals. Patterns of speech and the mode of lifestyles may be strong indicators of a given class. Social welfare in Australia takes the notion of egalitarianism. In the wake of the 19th century, lawmaking has furthered impartiality in the society. This was meant to improve the chances to individuals with different disabili ties. During the colonial era, the Aborigines received massive discrimination from the whites in terms of accessing public facilities. The most common welfare issues are the rising unemployment and the aged people (Baldaulf, 1995, p.67). In addition, childcare, poverty, and helping individuals from the remote areas fall in the list. It is the culture of the Australians to offer equal treatment to the needy individuals without discrimination. Australians have the freedom to religion. The constitution supports this by guaranteeing religious freedom. In Australia, there is no official national religion, and this aspect puts Christianity in the forefront as the dominant religion in the country. The colonialists introduced the Anglican belief in the 17th century and most of the population identify with Christianity. Australia has gained its fame in religious diversity due to the extensive immigration. All faiths have gained a representation in the country since most of the indigenous peo ple have embraced Christianity. This has resulted from the close relationship between the citizens and the missionaries (Angelo, 1994, p.46). Religious alternatives had a small presence since the 1850s. The New Age movement represents a set of growing beliefs. The movement arrived in the 1960s and was able to spread greatly by the 1990s giving some way for paganism. In addition, it has given way for other aspects of the occult among a small fraction of the citizens. In conclusion, the settling of the Europeans in Australia played a prominent role in changing the culture of the Aborigines. The Europeans changed the lifestyle of the Aborigines tremendously by making them leave their indigenous culture. They have also brought to extinction the different tribes that were the original people of the country making them abandon their indigenous languages (Janke, 1998, p.89). The 20th century brought many changes in different areas though the Australians did not abandon some of the things t hey acquired during the colonial empire. In the current Australia, the government formation has taken after the British systems who were their colonizers. Bearing all the above in mind, it suffices to conclude that the indigenous culture in Australia has been broken down since the white settlement. Reference List Angelo, D. (1994). Australian phrasebook. Victoria: Lonely planet. Baldaulf, R. (1995). Backing Australian languages: Review of the Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander languages initiatives program. Canberra: National languages and literacy institute of Australia. Basso, K. (1998). Wisdom sits in places: Language and landscape among the western Apache. Albuquerque: University of Mexico press. Black, P. (1983). Aboriginal languages of the northern territory. Batchelor: SAL. Campbell, L. (1997). American Indian languages. London: Oxford university press. Dixon, R. (1980). The languages of Australia. Australia: Cambridge university press. Fasold, R. (1984). The sociolinguist ics of society. Oxford: Blackwell. Janke, T. (1998). Our culture, our future: Report on Australian indigenous cultural and intellectual property rights. Canberra: Viberg press. This essay on The Breakdown of Indigenous Culture in Australia was written and submitted by user Aviana Gonzalez to help you with your own studies. You are free to use it for research and reference purposes in order to write your own paper; however, you must cite it accordingly. You can donate your paper here.

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